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e whether confidence is a valid metacognitive measure, we compared confidence ratings between two conditions with overt responses, where participants provided both first- and second- order responses; and with covert responses where participants reported their confidence in a decision that they had not executed. Removing first-order decisions did not affect confidence, which validates confidence as an introspective measure. Copyright © 2020 Filevich et al.The Amyloid Precursor Protein (APP) has been